Mongolian historical map changes
Mongolia has experienced various changes to its historical borders over the centuries. Here are some significant shifts in Mongolian history:
1. Mongol Empire (1206-1368): Under the leadership of Genghis Khan and his successors, the Mongol Empire emerged as a vast empire, stretching from Eastern Europe to Asia. It encompassed regions such as China, Central Asia, the Middle East, and parts of Eastern Europe.
2. Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368): The Mongol Empire later transformed into the Yuan Dynasty, with Mongolia serving as the empire's heartland. The Yuan Dynasty ruled over China, Mongolia, and portions of neighboring territories.
3. Ming Dynasty and Qing Dynasty (1368-1911): The Mongolian territories came under Ming Dynasty rule after the collapse of the Yuan Dynasty. During the Qing Dynasty, Mongolia was incorporated as part of the Qing Empire, which extended its control over Mongolia, China, and some parts of Central Asia.
4. Independence and Republic of Mongolia (1911-1924): In 1911, Mongolia declared independence from the Qing Dynasty, establishing the Bogd Khanate of Mongolia. However, it faced external pressures and conflicts until the establishment of the Mongolian People's Republic in 1924.
5. Mongolian People's Republic (1924-1992): The Mongolian People's Republic was established as a socialist state under Soviet influence. During this period, Mongolia remained a separate entity from China, maintaining its own political and territorial identity.
6. Modern Mongolia: Following the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, Mongolia transitioned to a democratic system. Today, Mongolia is an independent nation with its recognized borders, encompassing the region of Outer Mongolia.
It's important to note that the historical map of Mongolia has seen several changes and complex political dynamics. The borders and territories mentioned above provide a general overview of major historical periods but may not encompass all nuances or minor adjustments throughout history.
Turks and Mongols history: 6th - 13th century
The high plateau of Mongolia, east of the Altai mountains, is rivalled only by Scandinavia as a region from which successive waves of tribesmen have emerged to prey upon more sedentary neighbours. Mongolia is the original homeland of both Turks and Mongols, two groups much intermingled in history and loosely related in their languages. Mongolia is an ideal starting point for the movement of nomadic tribes in search of new pastures, and for sudden excursions of a more predatory nature. It lies at the end of an entire range of open grasslands, the steppes, which reach all the way to Europe. Riders can move fast along the prairies. South of this nomadic highway lives wealthy settled communities. The emergence of the Turks from Mongolia is a gradual and uncharted process. Each successive wave makes its first appearance in history only when Turkish tribes or warriors acquire power in some new region, whether they be the Khazars, the Seljuks or one of many other such groups. The sudden eruption of the Mongols from their homeland is different. Their astonishing expansion, spanning the breadth of Asia, can be precisely dated (to the early years of the 13th century) and can be attributed to the military genius of one man - born with the name of Temujin, but known now as Genghis Khan.
Chinggis Khan: The Conqueror of Empires and Founder of the Mongol Empir: 1167-1227
No life in history differs so much in its beginning and its end as that of Temujin, or Genghis Khan. When he is born, in about 1167, the Mongols are only one among many nomadic tribes competing in the eastern steppes. The boy's father, chieftain of a small clan, is poisoned when Temujin is eight. The group casts out the widow and her young children, who have to forage for their food - wild plants, small animals and sometimes even mice. This almost contemporary account may somewhat romanticise the great man's lowly origins (turning an occasional mouse into a way of life), but the implied contract is valid. By the time of his death, in 1227, Genghis Khan's rule extends from the Caspian to the northern coast of China. It is a measure of the task confronting the young Temujin that it takes him the first twenty-five years of his fighting life to win a position of power among his people. Battles within his clan and against other Mongol and neighbouring tribes occupy him until the age of about forty. Then, in 1206, he is acclaimed as the tribal leader and takes the title Genghis Khan - meaning, approximately, 'all-encompassing chief'. Only now is he free to direct the energy of his people outwards. Genghis Khan's first major campaigns are to the southeast, making incursions from 1209 into northern China. In 1215 he reached and captures Beijing. But his most ambitious expedition, starting in 1219, is to the west. Samarkand and Bukhara are taken and sacked in 1220. Genghis Khan then moves south and enters India, but he turns back from this rich prize when he reaches the Indus. By 1223 his armies have moved around the Caspian and up through the Caucasus mountains to plunder cities of the Crimea and southern Russia. This journey of conquest, unmatched in its speed and extent since the exploits of Alexander the Great, is based on brilliant psychological warfare.
The best strategy of the battle in Mongolian history: 13th century
Several different factors explain the overwhelming success of Genghis Khan and his armies, but superior weaponry is not one of them. The traditional riding skill of the nomads of the steppes plays, as ever, a large part. With stirrups now a standard piece of cavalry equipment, the ability of the horsemen is higher than ever, in galloping close to the enemy, releasing a hail of arrows and wheeling away again. Horsemanship also plays its part in the system of communication which enables Mongol armies to coordinate their strategies. Riders gallop between well-equipped staging posts across the steppes, allowing a message to to travel more than 200 miles in a day. Pigeons, too, are trained for the purpose. But the single most crucial element is a hard use of two psychological weapons, loyalty and fear. Genghis Khan makes a cunning distinction in his treatment of nomadic tribesmen and the settled inhabitants of cities and towns. A warrior from a rival tribe, who battles bravely against Genghis Khan but loses, will be rewarded for his valour and encouraged to join the Mongols against the rest of the world. Only cowardice or treachery in an opposing tribe are punished. For sedentary folk in alien lands, these rules are reversed. Here treachery is positively encouraged. Spies infiltrate the towns. Informers are sought out and bribed. The Mongols are coming. There is a choice to be made. The choice is a simple one; to fight or to surrender. News of the consequences travels fast. If a town bravely resists, the inhabitants are massacred in a public display. They are herded outside the walls to confront Mongol troopers with battle-axes. Each soldier is given a quota to despatch. A tally of ears is sometimes demanded as proof that the work is done. Terror stalks ahead of a Mongol horde like an invisible ally. The spies in the town let it be known that a rapid surrender may well be rewarded with mercy. Usually, the citizens need no persuading. The gates are opened. After sufficient booty to keep the troops happy, the horde moves on.
Ogedei Khan: 1229-1241
Genghis Khan returned to Mongolia from his long western campaign in 1225. Soon he is riding to war again, once more against northern China. During a day's hunting, he falls from his horse. His injuries contribute to his death a little while later, in 1227. The family and the Mongol nobility assemble in Mongolia for the quriltai, in which a new Khan is elected. The choice eventually falls, in 1229, on Genghis's second surviving son, Ogedai - already identified by Genghis Khan as his preferred heir. Ogedai gives his vast inheritance the status of an empire by turning his father's modest headquarters at the Karakorum into a splendid capital city. The Karakorum rapidly becomes a place of stature. A Christian friar reaching it in 1253 (William of Rubruquis) finds city walls, a vast rectangular palace, brick houses on the streets, twelve Shamanists lines, two mosques and a Nestorian Christian church. Genghis Khan spent his life in ceaseless campaigning, but his son Ogedai prefers to direct operations from his new capital city. Under his central control, Mongol armies make further inroads into China. They overwhelm Korea. And they have unexpected successes in the west. In 1235 Ogedai instructed his nephew Batu to extend his part of the family inheritance into Europe. Genghis Khan has entrusted the western extreme of his empire to his eldest son, Juchi, who dies shortly before himself in 1227. Juchi's son Batu remains in control of this region, and in 1236 he moves northwards into Russia. In 1237 Batu and his armies overwhelmed the tribes around the lower reaches of the Volga. Russia, consisting of many small principalities ill-equipped for any concerted effort, lies open before them.
The Golden Horde: 1237-1395
Zolotaya Orda, or the Golden Horde, is the name given by Russians to the invading Mongols who sweep through the country from 1237 and who subsequently dominate the region, for nearly two centuries, from their encampments on the lower reaches of the Volga. The name is traditionally said to derive from a golden tent used by the Horde's leader, Batu Khan. Most of the Russian cities of any note are ravaged by the Mongols in the two years between their sacking of Moscow (1238) and Kiev (1240). But the horde then moves south. One army from the Mongol horde advances into Poland in 1241. They defeat a joint force of German and Polish knights at Legnica in April. In the same month, another Mongol army wins a crushing victory over the Hungarians at Mohi. The tribesmen spend that summer on the plains of Hungary, grasslands similar to their steppes. Eastern Europe is well-equipped to dislodge these fierce nomads. But a faraway event resolves the issue. The news comes in December that the great khan, Ogedai, has died in the Karakorum. The leader of the horde, Batu, and other Mongol nobles must attend the quriltai which will elect his successor. Batu withdraws from Hungary, returning the swarm to its grasslands around the Volga. From this region, the leaders of the Golden Horde control the petty princes of much of Russia - mainly by the simple device of treating them as glorified tax collectors. The princes are given free rein in their own territories as long as they deliver sufficient tribute. Batu makes his capital from 1243 at a place on the Volga named after him - Sarai Batu, the 'encampment' of Batu. His brother Berke, succeeding to the leadership in 1255, adopts Islam as the religion of the horde. His capital, Sarai Berke (to the east of modern Volgograd), becomes a thriving city of mosques and public baths, in the central Asian tradition, with some 600,000 inhabitants. It lasts until 1395 when it is destroyed by Timur. The Grandsons of the great khan: from 1246
In the generation of Genghis Khan's grandsons, the position of 'great khan' passes first from his son Ogedai to Ogedai's son, Güyük - after considerable opposition from rival cousins. Ogedai died in 1241. His widow, Töregene, rules the hordes during the four years before a final decision is reached. She eventually secures the election of Güyük in 1246. But he dies only two years later. Again there is a prolonged period of disagreement, during which Güyük's widow, Oghul Khaimish, is similarly accepted as regent of the empire. But eventually, the choice goes in 1251 to Mangu, son of Genghis Khan's youngest son, Tului. Mangu (sometimes written Möngke) entrusts to two of his brothers the campaigns to extend Mongol power east and west. In each direction a large and prosperous area awaits attention. Mongol armies have nibbled, but little more, at the northern provinces of China. And they have swept westwards along the steppes to Russia, establishing there the Golden Horde. But they have made few inroads into the richer parts of China, or into Persia and the Middle East. In 1252 Mangu gave command over the eastern frontiers of the empire to his brother Kublai. And in about 1255 he instructsHulagu, some two years younger than Kublai, to subdue Islamic central Asia.
Kublai Khan and the Yüan dynasty of China: 1252-79
From 1252 Kublai presses south through the mountainous western regions of China, into Szechwan and Yünnan. His attention is distracted by the death of his brother, the great Khan Mangu, in 1259. Kublai is elected khan in his place by the Mongol nobles campaigning with him in China. But the same position is claimed by a younger brother, Ariq Böge, at the Karakorum. Kublai defeated his brother in 1264. As Kublai Khan, ruler of the Mongol empire, he is now free to give his full attention to China. In 1267 he revealed the seriousness of his ambitions when he moves the imperial capital south from the Karakorum to Beijing - a town severely damaged by his grandfather, Genghis Khan, in 1215. Kublai Khan builds himself a magnificent city at Beijing. Its walls are 24 miles in circumference and some 50 feet high. The Mongols call it Khanbaliq, the 'city of the Khan'; and under a version of this name, as Cambaluc, it becomes famous even in Europe. From this base in the north, he sets about overwhelming the Song dynasty. As early as 1271 he makes it understandable that he sees himself not as an invading barbarian but as the Chinese emperor of a new family. In that year he announces a Chinese name for his dynasty - Ta Yüan, meaning 'Great Origin'. Ancestors are vital in China, so his grandfather Genghis Khan is given a posthumous Chinese title: T'ai Tsu, 'Grand Progenitor'. Kublai soon makes good these Chinese pretensions. In 1276 Hangzhou, the capital of the surviving Song dynasty falls to his armies. The young emperor and his mother are brought to Kublai's court and are treated with civility. By 1279 there is no further Song resistance. The Chinese chronicler's record, from that year, the start of a new dynasty - the Yüan, the first in the empire's history to be ruled by an outsider. But Kublai Khan is determined not to be an outsider. He even adopts the administrative system of the Chinese bureaucracy. The only difference is that he employs more foreigners than a Chinese emperor would. One of them, Marco Polo, has left a vivid (if one-sided) glimpse of Mongol China. Kublai Khan is sovereign over regions more extensive than any previous Chinese empire. Even allowing for the fact that his authority in the Mongol territories in the west is only nominal (as the great khan), he has under his direct control Mongolia, Tibet, Manchuria, Korea and the whole of China down to the South China Sea. Only one grand prize escapes him, frustrating his clean sweep of the region. Two expeditions against Japan are costly disasters - in 1274 and again in 1281, during Marco Polo's years in China.
The last great khan: Mongolian History in 1264-1294
Kublai's status as the great khan, established in 1264, is not again challenged in his lifetime. But already this exalted position has lost any real meaning. The Mongol empire has changed since the time of Genghis Khan when the hordes, moving with devastating speed, could be controlled by one man. The great conqueror's grandchildren have now settled - in three distinct and increasingly independent regions. Of the three, Kublai's realm is the grandest. But the others are impressive. Two cousins of Kublai Khan, the brothers Batu and Berke, have secured a homeland for the Golden Horde in Russia. And Kublai's brother, Hulagu, has established a Mongol realm in Persia and Mesopotamia. Mongols in Persia and Mesopotamia: from 1256 Hulagu crosses the Amu Darya river in January 1256, beginning the Mongol campaign against Islamic Persia. The region has been terrorised in recent years by the Assassins, but this extremist Ismaili sect meets its match in the Mongols. One by one Hulagu takes the Assassin fortresses, including the supposedly impregnable Alamut. At the end of 1257, Hulagu presses further to the west, into even more productive lands. He and his horde move into Mesopotamia - the territory of the caliph, and as such the ostensible centre of the Islamic world. The caliph in Baghdad, al-Musta'sim, risks the impossible. In January 1258 he sent an army against the approaching Mongols. The Muslim army is routed by Hulagu, who orders the caliph to appear before him and to destroy the walls of the city. When the caliph declines, Hulagu to besiege and sacks Baghdad. It is said that 800,000 of the inhabitants are killed, including the caliph - who is executed by being kicked to death. In 1259 Hulagu and the Mongols took Aleppo and Damascus. The coastal plain and the route south to Egypt seem open to them. But in 1260 at Ayn Jalut, near Nazareth, they meet the army of the Mameluke sultan of Egypt. It is led into the field by Baybars, a Mameluke general. In one of the decisive battles of history, Baybars defeats the Mongols. It is the first setback suffered by the family of Genghis Khan in their remorseless half-century of expansion. This battle defines for the first time a limit to their power. It preserves Palestine and Syria for the Mameluke dynasty in Egypt. Mesopotamia and Persia remain within the Mongol empire. The Il-khans of Persia: 1260-1335 After defeat by the Mamelukes at Ayn Jalut, Hulagu and his descendants make their capital at Tabriz, on the trade route from the east to the Black Sea. They rule as Il-khans ('subordinate khans'), accepting the great khan in Mongolia as their overlord. They make several further attempts to wrest Syria and Palestine from the Mamelukes, but the Euphrates remains the western border of their empire. It is the western extreme of a vast territory. The Il-khans rule as far as the Indus in the east, and from the Amu-Darya in the north down to the Indian Ocean. The last Il-khan in Hulagu's line dies in 1335. His death is followed by a succession of petty rulers in different parts of Persia until the arrival of another conqueror from the steppes of central Asia - a man accustomed to the horizon almost as broad as the one claimed by Genghis Khan. The army of Timur reaches northern Persia in 1383.
The Pax Mongolica and the Silk Road in Mongolian history: 13th - 14th century
By the middle of the 13th century, the family of Genghis Khan controls Asia from the coast of China to the Black Sea. Not since the days of the Han and Roman empires, when the Silk Road is first opened, has there been such an opportunity for trade. In the intervening centuries, the eastern end of the Silk Road has been unsafe because of the Chinese inability to control the fierce nomads of the steppes (nomads such as the Mongols), and the western end has been unsettled by the clash between Islam and Christianity. Now, with the Mongols policing the whole route, there is stability. In an echo of the Pax Romana, the period is often described as the Pax Mongolica. One of the merchants making their way to the east is
Marco Polo in Mongolian History
Marco Polo was an Italian explorer and merchant who is famous for his extensive travels in the 13th century. Here are some key points about Marco Polo:
1. Early Life: Marco Polo was born in Venice, Italy, in 1254. He came from a wealthy merchant family, and his father Niccolò and uncle Maffeo were already experienced traders.
2. Journey to Asia: In 1271, when Marco Polo was 17 years old, he embarked on a journey to the East with his father and uncle. They traveled along the Silk Road and reached the court of Kublai Khan, the Mongol Emperor of the Yuan Dynasty in China.
3. Service to Kublai Khan: Marco Polo served as an emissary and official in the court of Kublai Khan for approximately 17 years. He traveled extensively within the Mongol Empire, visiting various regions including China, Mongolia, India, and Southeast Asia.
4. Travels and Observations: During his travels, Marco Polo documented his observations and experiences in a book called "Il Milione" or "The Travels of Marco Polo." He described the geography, culture, customs, and trade of the regions he visited, which provided Europeans with valuable information about Asia.
5. Return to Venice: After being in the service of Kublai Khan for many years, Marco Polo returned to Venice in 1295. Venice was at war with Genoa at the time and Marco Polo was captured and imprisoned during the conflict.
6. The Book's Impact: Marco Polo's book, "The Travels of Marco Polo," became immensely popular in Europe and sparked curiosity about the distant lands of the East. It played a significant role in promoting European exploration and trade with Asia.
7. Legacy: Marco Polo's travels and writings had a lasting impact on European geographical knowledge, fostering a broader understanding of the world. His accounts also inspired subsequent explorers, such as Christopher Columbus.
It's worth noting that there have been debates and controversies over the accuracy and authenticity of Marco Polo's accounts. However, his writings continue to be studied and recognized as an important historical source for understanding the medieval world and the cultural exchange between East and West.
The decline of Mongol power: 14th century history
In all three regions of their great 13th-century empire, Mongol power ends or declines during the 14th century. In Persia, the last Il-Khan died in 1335. In China, the Yüan dynasty was replaced by the Ming in 1368. In Russia, the Golden Horde begins to lose its dominant position in the last quarter of the century. The grand prince of Moscow defeats the horde in a battle on Kulikovo Plain in 1380; Timur destroyed the city of Sarai Berke in 1395. The Mongols (or Tatars as they are known in Russian history) remain a force to be reckoned with for another two centuries. Surging north from their heartland in the Crimea, they even sack Moscow as late as 1547. But they are now only one competing power among many in Russia. No empire of such a vast scale has passed so quickly or left so little trace. The likely reason is that the Mongols, conquerors of unparalleled skill, are in all other respects more primitive than the people they overwhelm. They are illiterate in the time of Genghis Khan (the Mongolian alphabet was borrowed from a Turkish group later in the 13th century), and their religion is a primitive one, shamanism. As a result, Mongols in different regions tend to lose their identity, adopting the customs which they find in each conquered territory (the Mongols in China present themselves, for example, as a Chinese dynasty), and taking their pick from well-established and more sophisticated religions. In China the Mongols incline to Buddhism, having already an active link with Tibet. In western Asia, where their conquests bring them to the border territories between the caliphate, the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem and the Byzantine empire, they find themselves at the interface between Islam and Christianity. Both sides have hopes of enlisting the great Mongols as allies. Berke, the ruler of the Golden Horde, is the first to adopt Islam - shortly after 1255. He is therefore appalled when his nephew Hulagu, who has a Nestorian Christian wife, destroys Baghdad and kills the caliph in 1258. By the end of the 13th century, most of the Mongols in Persia and central Asia have accepted Islam, the religion which has prevailed in the region for the past 600 years. But it is not only religious influences which dilute the impact of the Mongols. The regions of western Asia conquered by the Mongols are those in which they have been preceded by their distant cousins, the Turks. Settling down to rule, the Mongols need administrators. The Turks are already in place, ready and available. Mongol and Turkish become intertwined, with the older culture tending to prevail. Nowhere is this more evident than in central Asia.
Timur and the Chagatai Turks: 14th century
The regions north and south of the Hindu Kush, approximating to modern Uzbekistan and Afghanistan, from an indeterminate part of the empire of Genghis Khan. Descendants of his son Chagatai inherit them, but the district is fought over by many rival cousins. Here, more than anywhere in the Mongol empire, the Turkish influence is all-pervasive. By the end of the 14th century, even the fiercely competitive petty princes of the region are vague as to whether they are Mongols or Turks - a fact reflected in their different name. They are known as Chagatai Turks. The greatest of them is born near Samarkand in 1336. His name is Timur, but he is more familiar in the west as Tamerlane. Timur is known in his local variety of Turkish as Timur I Leng, meaning Timur the Lame. It is this phrase which has been transliterated in European accounts as Tamerlane (also spelt Tamburlaine). Timur sees himself as restoring the vast Mongol empire. Like Genghis Khan, two centuries earlier, he spends the first half of his life establishing control over local rivals. He is almost fifty when he begins, in 1383, an astonishing two decades of far-flung military campaigns. During them, he reconquers, single-handed, the western half of the Mongol empire.
Timur's conquests:1383 - 1405
Timur begins his campaign with the capture in 1383 of Herat, a city on the border of Afghanistan and Iran which will later, under his descendants, become a high centre of Persian culture. In the next two years, he subdues the whole of eastern Persia. By 1394 he has extended his rule throughout Persia and Mesopotamia and up between the Black Sea and Caspian into Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia. In 1396 he stormed into Russia and occupied Moscow for a year. Timur's rule is brutal. In Persia frequent uprisings are put down with a severity similar to that of Genghis Khan. Populations of entire cities are massacred, and Timur develops a compelling new form of memento mori. The skulls of the dead from the masonry for towers firmly cemented together to stand as cautionary tales. In 1398 Timur outdid one of Genghis Khan's expeditions. He invades India, but unlike his predecessor, he does not stop at the Indus. He marches on to Delhi and devastates the city. He then spends several months collecting treasure, which he carries home on 120 elephants. Home is Samarkand, the city closest to his birthplace. Timur is busy turning it into a great centre of Muslim architecture and art. Together with the Indian elephants come the best craftsmen of Delhi, who will be set to work in Samarkand - where they join, in 1399, a community of skilled captives from previous expeditions. The conqueror himself, now in his mid-sixties, has more practical business to attend to. Before the end of 1399, he marches west, to restore order in his outlying provinces.
The conqueror's declining years in Mongolian Histoy: 1401-1405
In 1401, in Syria, Timur defeated a Mameluke army from Egypt. He then takes and destroys Damascus, despatches a new consignment of talented artisans back to Samarkand. Later in the same year, Baghdad is stormed and sacked, and 20,000 of its population massacred. In 1402 the aged warrior advanced into Anatolia. He defeats an army of Ottoman Turks near Ankara, capturing their sultan, Bayazid I (who dies in Timur's care). He then moves to the west, as far as the Aegean, to take Izmir from the Knights of Rhodes.
By 1404 he is back in Samarkand. But even now, two years short of seventy, he is not ready to settle. He has set his sights on an even more ambitious project.
Late in 1404, Timur sets out to invade China. He gets no further than Chimkent before he falls ill, in January 1405, and dies.
China thus saved from Timur's unwelcome attention is now firmly back under the control of a Chinese dynasty - the Ming. The successors of Kublai Khan have withdrawn to Mongolia.
Discover Mongolian History with Enza Tours LLC
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