Mongolian historical map changes

Mongolia has experienced various changes to its historical borders over the centuries. Here are some significant shifts in Mongolian history:

1. Mongol Empire (1206-1368)

Under the remarkable leadership of Genghis Khan, whose real name was Temüjin, and his successors, the Mongol Empire emerged as one of the largest contiguous empires in history, stretching impressively from Eastern Europe all the way to the vast expanses of Asia. This unprecedented empire encompassed a diverse range of regions, including the culturally rich landscapes of China, the strategically significant territories of Central Asia, the historically important lands of the Middle East, and significant portions of Eastern Europe. Genghis Khan, who united the fragmented Mongol tribes in the early 13th century, laid the foundational principles of governance, military strategy, and cultural exchange that would define the empire. His innovative approach to warfare, characterized by highly mobile cavalry units and sophisticated tactics, allowed the Mongols to conquer vast territories with remarkable speed and efficiency. Following his death in 1227, the empire continued to expand under the leadership of his descendants, including his grandsons Kublai Khan and Hulagu Khan. Kublai Khan established the Yuan Dynasty in China, which marked a significant integration of Mongolian and Chinese cultures, leading to advancements in trade, technology, and governance. Meanwhile, Hulagu Khan's campaigns in the Middle East resulted in the establishment of the Ilkhanate, which facilitated the spread of knowledge and cultural exchanges between the East and West. The Mongol Empire's vast expanse not only included military conquests but also fostered an unprecedented era of trade and communication along the Silk Road. This network connected diverse cultures and economies, allowing for the exchange of goods, ideas, and innovations across continents. The Mongols implemented policies that promoted trade and protected merchants, which contributed to a flourishing economy throughout the empire. In summary, under the visionary leadership of Genghis Khan and his successors, the Mongol Empire emerged as a formidable force in world history, characterized by its vast geographic reach and significant cultural impact. Its legacy continues to be felt today, as it played a crucial role in shaping the political and cultural landscapes of the regions it encompassed.

2. Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368)

The Mongol Empire, which emerged in the early 13th century under the leadership of Genghis Khan, later underwent a significant transformation, evolving into what is known as the Yuan Dynasty. This transition marked a pivotal moment in Asian history, as the Mongol Empire, once a vast and powerful entity that stretched across much of Eurasia, began to consolidate its power in a more structured and centralized form. Mongolia, the original homeland of the Mongols, served as the heartland of this new dynasty, playing a crucial role in its administration and cultural identity. The Yuan Dynasty, established in 1271 by Kublai Khan, the grandson of Genghis Khan, represented the Mongols' formal rule over China. This period was characterized by the integration of Mongolian and Chinese cultures, leading to a unique synthesis that influenced various aspects of life, including governance, art, and commerce. Under Kublai Khan's leadership, the Yuan Dynasty expanded its reach not only throughout China but also into Mongolia and significant portions of neighboring territories, including parts of Korea, Tibet, and even Southeast Asia. During the Yuan Dynasty, the Mongols implemented various administrative reforms aimed at managing their diverse empire. They adopted elements of Chinese governance, which included the establishment of a bureaucratic system that allowed for more effective control over the vast territories they ruled. This period also saw the promotion of trade along the Silk Road, which flourished under Mongol protection, facilitating cultural exchange and economic interaction between East and West. Furthermore, the Yuan Dynasty is notable for its contributions to the arts and sciences. The era witnessed advancements in literature, painting, and theater, with famous figures such as the playwright Guan Hanqing emerging during this time. The dynasty also fostered a climate of religious tolerance, allowing various faiths to coexist, which further enriched the cultural tapestry of the empire. In summary, the transformation of the Mongol Empire into the Yuan Dynasty not only marked a significant shift in governance and territory but also initiated a period of cultural flourishing and integration that had lasting effects on the regions it encompassed. The legacy of the Yuan Dynasty continues to be felt in the historical narratives of China, Mongolia, and beyond, illustrating the profound impact of Mongolian rule on the development of these areas.

3. Ming Dynasty and Qing Dynasty (1368-1911)

The Mongolian territories came under Ming Dynasty rule after the collapse of the Yuan Dynasty, which marked the end of Mongol dominance in China. This transition was significant, as the Yuan Dynasty, established by Kublai Khan, had been the first foreign dynasty to rule over the entirety of China. Following its decline in the 14th century, the Ming Dynasty sought to reassert Han Chinese control and restore traditional Chinese governance, leading to a complex relationship with the Mongolian tribes. The Ming rulers implemented a series of military campaigns aimed at subduing the Mongolian nomadic tribes, which frequently engaged in raids across the northern borders of the empire. During the Ming period, the Great Wall was expanded and fortified, serving as both a physical barrier against Mongol incursions and a symbol of Ming authority. Despite these efforts, the Ming Dynasty faced ongoing challenges from the Mongols, who remained a formidable presence in the region. The relationship was characterized by intermittent warfare and uneasy truces, with the Ming court often attempting to negotiate peace through tributary relations, which required the Mongolian leaders to acknowledge Ming supremacy while still retaining a degree of autonomy. Later, during the Qing Dynasty, which rose to power in the 17th century, Mongolia was incorporated as part of the Qing Empire. The Qing Dynasty, established by the Manchu people, extended its control over Mongolia, China, and even some parts of Central Asia. This expansion was facilitated by the Qing's military prowess and strategic alliances with various Mongolian tribes. The Qing rulers adopted a policy of indirect rule, allowing local Mongolian leaders to maintain a degree of authority while also integrating Mongolia into the broader imperial structure. The Qing administration established a system of banners, which organized Mongolian society into military and administrative units. This system helped to consolidate Qing control over the vast and often sparsely populated Mongolian steppes. The Qing Dynasty's influence in Mongolia also led to significant cultural exchanges, as Tibetan Buddhism spread throughout the region, and Mongolian leaders often sought the patronage of the Qing emperors to legitimize their rule. As a result of these historical developments, Mongolia's identity evolved significantly, shaped by its interactions with both the Ming and Qing dynasties. The legacy of these dynasties continues to influence Mongolia's cultural and political landscape, as the region navigates its historical ties to China while asserting its own national identity in the modern era.

4. Independence and Republic of Mongolia (1911-1924)

In 1911, Mongolia declared its independence from the Qing Dynasty, marking a significant turning point in its history and the establishment of the Bogd Khanate of Mongolia. This declaration was not merely a political maneuver; it was the culmination of centuries of cultural and national identity formation among the Mongolian people, who had long sought autonomy from foreign domination. The Bogd Khanate, named after the spiritual leader Bogd Khan, was characterized by a theocratic governance structure that combined both religious and political authority. Despite this newfound independence, Mongolia faced a myriad of external pressures and conflicts in the years that followed. The geopolitical landscape of East Asia was tumultuous, with the decline of the Qing Dynasty creating a power vacuum that various neighboring powers sought to exploit. Russia, with its imperial ambitions, and China, still reeling from its own dynastic collapse, both viewed Mongolia as a territory of strategic interest. The situation was further complicated by the aftermath of the 1911 Revolution in China, which led to the establishment of the Republic of China. The new government sought to reassert control over Mongolia, leading to tensions and confrontations. In this environment of uncertainty, Mongolia's leaders had to navigate a complex web of alliances and enmities, often relying on diplomatic maneuvering to maintain their fragile independence. The internal dynamics of Mongolia were also challenging, as various factions emerged, each with differing visions for the future of the nation. Some advocated for a return to traditional nomadic lifestyles and governance, while others pushed for modernization and reform. The struggle for a cohesive national identity was further exacerbated by the influence of foreign ideologies, particularly those stemming from Russia, which began to gain traction among certain segments of the population. Ultimately, these external pressures and internal conflicts culminated in the establishment of the Mongolian People's Republic in 1924. This new political entity marked a dramatic shift in Mongolia's governance, as it aligned itself more closely with Soviet communism, seeking to implement radical reforms and modernization initiatives. The transition from the Bogd Khanate to a people's republic represented not only a change in political structure but also a profound transformation in the social fabric of Mongolia, as it embarked on a path toward industrialization and collectivization, fundamentally altering the lives of its citizens.

5. Mongolian People's Republic (1924-1992)

The Mongolian People's Republic was established as a socialist state under the significant influence of the Soviet Union, marking a pivotal moment in the history of Mongolia. This formation took place in the early 20th century, specifically in 1924, following a series of revolutionary movements that sought to free Mongolia from the grip of imperial rule. The establishment of the republic was not merely a political maneuver; it represented a profound shift in the socio-economic landscape of the region. The new government embarked on ambitious plans to modernize the country, implementing policies that aimed to transform Mongolia from a primarily agrarian society into a socialist state characterized by industrialization and collectivization. During this transformative period, Mongolia maintained its status as a separate entity from China, which had historically exerted considerable influence over the region. The recognition of Mongolia's independence was solidified with the signing of various treaties, most notably the 1945 Sino-Soviet Treaty, which acknowledged Mongolia's sovereignty. As a result, Mongolia developed its own political and territorial identity, distinct from its neighbor to the south. The influence of the Soviet Union was evident in various aspects of Mongolian life, including the adoption of Marxist-Leninist ideology, the establishment of a single-party system, and the implementation of state-controlled economic policies. Culturally, this period saw a revival of Mongolian nationalism intertwined with socialist ideals, as the government promoted the use of the Mongolian language and the preservation of traditional customs, albeit through a socialist lens. Education and healthcare systems were overhauled, leading to increased literacy rates and improved public health outcomes. However, these advancements came at a cost, as political repression and purges were not uncommon, reflecting the broader trends of authoritarian governance seen in other socialist states. Overall, the Mongolian People's Republic's establishment marked a significant turning point in the nation’s history, laying the groundwork for its future development and shaping its identity as a sovereign state, separate from Chinese control, while navigating the complexities of Soviet influence.

6. Modern Mongolia

Following the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, Mongolia underwent a significant and transformative transition from a one-party socialist state to a multi-party democratic system. This pivotal change marked the end of decades of Soviet influence and control, which had shaped Mongolia's political and economic landscape since the early 20th century. As a result of this transition, the country embraced democratic reforms, which included the establishment of a new constitution in 1992 that enshrined fundamental human rights, the rule of law, and the principles of democracy. Today, Mongolia stands as an independent nation, proudly asserting its sovereignty and territorial integrity. Its recognized borders encompass the vast region of Outer Mongolia, which is characterized by its diverse landscapes, ranging from the expansive steppes to the rugged mountains and the arid Gobi Desert. This geographical diversity not only contributes to the country's rich natural resources but also plays a crucial role in shaping the cultural identity of its people. Since the transition, Mongolia has made considerable strides in developing its political institutions, fostering a vibrant civil society, and encouraging active participation in the democratic process. The nation has held multiple elections, which have generally been deemed free and fair by international observers, reflecting the growing political engagement of its citizens. Furthermore, Mongolia's democratic journey has been accompanied by economic reforms aimed at transitioning from a centrally planned economy to a market-oriented one, which has opened up opportunities for foreign investment and trade. Despite the challenges that come with such a transformation, including issues related to governance, corruption, and economic inequality, Mongolia continues to navigate its path as a democratic nation. The commitment to maintaining its independence and sovereignty remains a central tenet of its national identity, as the country seeks to balance its relationships with neighboring powers, particularly Russia and China, while also engaging with the international community. In summary, Mongolia's evolution since the end of the Soviet era has been marked by a profound commitment to democracy and independence, positioning it as a unique player in the geopolitical landscape of East Asia.

It's important to note that the historical map of Mongolia has seen several changes and complex political dynamics. The borders and territories mentioned above provide a general overview of major historical periods but may not encompass all nuances or minor adjustments throughout history.

Turks and Mongols history: 6th - 13th century

The high plateau of Mongolia, east of the Altai mountains, is rivalled only by Scandinavia as a region from which successive waves of tribesmen have emerged to prey upon more sedentary neighbours. Mongolia is the original homeland of both Turks and Mongols, two groups much intermingled in history and loosely related in their languages. Mongolia is an ideal starting point for the movement of nomadic tribes in search of new pastures, and for sudden excursions of a more predatory nature. It lies at the end of an entire range of open grasslands, the steppes, which reach all the way to Europe. Riders can move fast along the prairies. South of this nomadic highway lives wealthy settled communities. The emergence of the Turks from Mongolia is a gradual and uncharted process. Each successive wave makes its first appearance in history only when Turkish tribes or warriors acquire power in some new region, whether they be the Khazars, the Seljuks or one of many other such groups. The sudden eruption of the Mongols from their homeland is different. Their astonishing expansion, spanning the breadth of Asia, can be precisely dated (to the early years of the 13th century) and can be attributed to the military genius of one man - born with the name of Temujin, but known now as Genghis Khan.

Chinggis Khan: The Conqueror of Empires and Founder of the Mongol Empir: 1167-1227

No life in history differs so much in its beginning and its end as that of Temujin, or Genghis Khan. When he is born, in about 1167, the Mongols are only one among many nomadic tribes competing in the eastern steppes. The boy's father, chieftain of a small clan, is poisoned when Temujin is eight. The group casts out the widow and her young children, who have to forage for their food - wild plants, small animals and sometimes even mice. This almost contemporary account may somewhat romanticise the great man's lowly origins (turning an occasional mouse into a way of life), but the implied contract is valid. By the time of his death, in 1227, Genghis Khan's rule extends from the Caspian to the northern coast of China. It is a measure of the task confronting the young Temujin that it takes him the first twenty-five years of his fighting life to win a position of power among his people. Battles within his clan and against other Mongol and neighbouring tribes occupy him until the age of about forty. Then, in 1206, he is acclaimed as the tribal leader and takes the title Genghis Khan - meaning, approximately, 'all-encompassing chief'. Only now is he free to direct the energy of his people outwards. Genghis Khan's first major campaigns are to the southeast, making incursions from 1209 into northern China. In 1215 he reached and captures Beijing. But his most ambitious expedition, starting in 1219, is to the west. Samarkand and Bukhara are taken and sacked in 1220. Genghis Khan then moves south and enters India, but he turns back from this rich prize when he reaches the Indus. By 1223 his armies have moved around the Caspian and up through the Caucasus mountains to plunder cities of the Crimea and southern Russia. This journey of conquest, unmatched in its speed and extent since the exploits of Alexander the Great, is based on brilliant psychological warfare.

The best strategy of the battle in Mongolian history: 13th century

Several different factors explain the overwhelming success of Genghis Khan and his armies, but superior weaponry is not one of them. The traditional riding skill of the nomads of the steppes plays, as ever, a large part. With stirrups now a standard piece of cavalry equipment, the ability of the horsemen is higher than ever, in galloping close to the enemy, releasing a hail of arrows and wheeling away again. Horsemanship also plays its part in the system of communication which enables Mongol armies to coordinate their strategies. Riders gallop between well-equipped staging posts across the steppes, allowing a message to to travel more than 200 miles in a day. Pigeons, too, are trained for the purpose. But the single most crucial element is a hard use of two psychological weapons, loyalty and fear. Genghis Khan makes a cunning distinction in his treatment of nomadic tribesmen and the settled inhabitants of cities and towns. A warrior from a rival tribe, who battles bravely against Genghis Khan but loses, will be rewarded for his valour and encouraged to join the Mongols against the rest of the world. Only cowardice or treachery in an opposing tribe are punished. For sedentary folk in alien lands, these rules are reversed. Here treachery is positively encouraged. Spies infiltrate the towns. Informers are sought out and bribed. The Mongols are coming. There is a choice to be made. The choice is a simple one; to fight or to surrender. News of the consequences travels fast. If a town bravely resists, the inhabitants are massacred in a public display. They are herded outside the walls to confront Mongol troopers with battle-axes. Each soldier is given a quota to despatch. A tally of ears is sometimes demanded as proof that the work is done. Terror stalks ahead of a Mongol horde like an invisible ally. The spies in the town let it be known that a rapid surrender may well be rewarded with mercy. Usually, the citizens need no persuading. The gates are opened. After sufficient booty to keep the troops happy, the horde moves on.

Ogedei Khan: 1229-1241

Genghis Khan returned to Mongolia from his long western campaign in 1225. Soon he is riding to war again, once more against northern China. During a day's hunting, he falls from his horse. His injuries contribute to his death a little while later, in 1227. The family and the Mongol nobility assemble in Mongolia for the quriltai, in which a new Khan is elected. The choice eventually falls, in 1229, on Genghis's second surviving son, Ogedai - already identified by Genghis Khan as his preferred heir. Ogedai gives his vast inheritance the status of an empire by turning his father's modest headquarters at the Karakorum into a splendid capital city. The Karakorum rapidly becomes a place of stature. A Christian friar reaching it in 1253 (William of Rubruquis) finds city walls, a vast rectangular palace, brick houses on the streets, twelve Shamanists lines, two mosques and a Nestorian Christian church. Genghis Khan spent his life in ceaseless campaigning, but his son Ogedai prefers to direct operations from his new capital city. Under his central control, Mongol armies make further inroads into China. They overwhelm Korea. And they have unexpected successes in the west. In 1235 Ogedai instructed his nephew Batu to extend his part of the family inheritance into Europe. Genghis Khan has entrusted the western extreme of his empire to his eldest son, Juchi, who dies shortly before himself in 1227. Juchi's son Batu remains in control of this region, and in 1236 he moves northwards into Russia. In 1237 Batu and his armies overwhelmed the tribes around the lower reaches of the Volga. Russia, consisting of many small principalities ill-equipped for any concerted effort, lies open before them.

The Golden Horde: 1237-1395

Zolotaya Orda, or the Golden Horde, is the name given by Russians to the invading Mongols who sweep through the country from 1237 and who subsequently dominate the region, for nearly two centuries, from their encampments on the lower reaches of the Volga. The name is traditionally said to derive from a golden tent used by the Horde's leader, Batu Khan. Most of the Russian cities of any note are ravaged by the Mongols in the two years between their sacking of Moscow (1238) and Kiev (1240). But the horde then moves south. One army from the Mongol horde advances into Poland in 1241. They defeat a joint force of German and Polish knights at Legnica in April. In the same month, another Mongol army wins a crushing victory over the Hungarians at Mohi. The tribesmen spend that summer on the plains of Hungary, grasslands similar to their steppes. Eastern Europe is well-equipped to dislodge these fierce nomads. But a faraway event resolves the issue. The news comes in December that the great khan, Ogedai, has died in the Karakorum. The leader of the horde, Batu, and other Mongol nobles must attend the quriltai which will elect his successor. Batu withdraws from Hungary, returning the swarm to its grasslands around the Volga. From this region, the leaders of the Golden Horde control the petty princes of much of Russia - mainly by the simple device of treating them as glorified tax collectors. The princes are given free rein in their own territories as long as they deliver sufficient tribute. Batu makes his capital from 1243 at a place on the Volga named after him - Sarai Batu, the 'encampment' of Batu. His brother Berke, succeeding to the leadership in 1255, adopts Islam as the religion of the horde. His capital, Sarai Berke (to the east of modern Volgograd), becomes a thriving city of mosques and public baths, in the central Asian tradition, with some 600,000 inhabitants. It lasts until 1395 when it is destroyed by Timur. The Grandsons of the great khan: from 1246

In the generation of Genghis Khan's grandsons, the position of 'great khan' passes first from his son Ogedai to Ogedai's son, Güyük - after considerable opposition from rival cousins. Ogedai died in 1241. His widow, Töregene, rules the hordes during the four years before a final decision is reached. She eventually secures the election of Güyük in 1246. But he dies only two years later. Again there is a prolonged period of disagreement, during which Güyük's widow, Oghul Khaimish, is similarly accepted as regent of the empire. But eventually, the choice goes in 1251 to Mangu, son of Genghis Khan's youngest son, Tului. Mangu (sometimes written Möngke) entrusts to two of his brothers the campaigns to extend Mongol power east and west. In each direction a large and prosperous area awaits attention. Mongol armies have nibbled, but little more, at the northern provinces of China. And they have swept westwards along the steppes to Russia, establishing there the Golden Horde. But they have made few inroads into the richer parts of China, or into Persia and the Middle East. In 1252 Mangu gave command over the eastern frontiers of the empire to his brother Kublai. And in about 1255 he instructsHulagu, some two years younger than Kublai, to subdue Islamic central Asia.

Kublai Khan and the Yüan dynasty of China: 1252-79

From 1252 Kublai presses south through the mountainous western regions of China, into Szechwan and Yünnan. His attention is distracted by the death of his brother, the great Khan Mangu, in 1259. Kublai is elected khan in his place by the Mongol nobles campaigning with him in China. But the same position is claimed by a younger brother, Ariq Böge, at the Karakorum. Kublai defeated his brother in 1264. As Kublai Khan, ruler of the Mongol empire, he is now free to give his full attention to China. In 1267 he revealed the seriousness of his ambitions when he moves the imperial capital south from the Karakorum to Beijing - a town severely damaged by his grandfather, Genghis Khan, in 1215. Kublai Khan builds himself a magnificent city at Beijing. Its walls are 24 miles in circumference and some 50 feet high. The Mongols call it Khanbaliq, the 'city of the Khan'; and under a version of this name, as Cambaluc, it becomes famous even in Europe. From this base in the north, he sets about overwhelming the Song dynasty. As early as 1271 he makes it understandable that he sees himself not as an invading barbarian but as the Chinese emperor of a new family. In that year he announces a Chinese name for his dynasty - Ta Yüan, meaning 'Great Origin'. Ancestors are vital in China, so his grandfather Genghis Khan is given a posthumous Chinese title: T'ai Tsu, 'Grand Progenitor'. Kublai soon makes good these Chinese pretensions. In 1276 Hangzhou, the capital of the surviving Song dynasty falls to his armies. The young emperor and his mother are brought to Kublai's court and are treated with civility. By 1279 there is no further Song resistance. The Chinese chronicler's record, from that year, the start of a new dynasty - the Yüan, the first in the empire's history to be ruled by an outsider. But Kublai Khan is determined not to be an outsider. He even adopts the administrative system of the Chinese bureaucracy. The only difference is that he employs more foreigners than a Chinese emperor would. One of them, Marco Polo, has left a vivid (if one-sided) glimpse of Mongol China. Kublai Khan is sovereign over regions more extensive than any previous Chinese empire. Even allowing for the fact that his authority in the Mongol territories in the west is only nominal (as the great khan), he has under his direct control Mongolia, Tibet, Manchuria, Korea and the whole of China down to the South China Sea. Only one grand prize escapes him, frustrating his clean sweep of the region. Two expeditions against Japan are costly disasters - in 1274 and again in 1281, during Marco Polo's years in China.

The last great khan: Mongolian History in 1264-1294

Kublai's status as the great khan, established in 1264, is not again challenged in his lifetime. But already this exalted position has lost any real meaning. The Mongol empire has changed since the time of Genghis Khan when the hordes, moving with devastating speed, could be controlled by one man. The great conqueror's grandchildren have now settled - in three distinct and increasingly independent regions. Of the three, Kublai's realm is the grandest. But the others are impressive. Two cousins of Kublai Khan, the brothers Batu and Berke, have secured a homeland for the Golden Horde in Russia. And Kublai's brother, Hulagu, has established a Mongol realm in Persia and Mesopotamia. Mongols in Persia and Mesopotamia: from 1256 Hulagu crosses the Amu Darya river in January 1256, beginning the Mongol campaign against Islamic Persia. The region has been terrorised in recent years by the Assassins, but this extremist Ismaili sect meets its match in the Mongols. One by one Hulagu takes the Assassin fortresses, including the supposedly impregnable Alamut. At the end of 1257, Hulagu presses further to the west, into even more productive lands. He and his horde move into Mesopotamia - the territory of the caliph, and as such the ostensible centre of the Islamic world. The caliph in Baghdad, al-Musta'sim, risks the impossible. In January 1258 he sent an army against the approaching Mongols. The Muslim army is routed by Hulagu, who orders the caliph to appear before him and to destroy the walls of the city. When the caliph declines, Hulagu to besiege and sacks Baghdad. It is said that 800,000 of the inhabitants are killed, including the caliph - who is executed by being kicked to death. In 1259 Hulagu and the Mongols took Aleppo and Damascus. The coastal plain and the route south to Egypt seem open to them. But in 1260 at Ayn Jalut, near Nazareth, they meet the army of the Mameluke sultan of Egypt. It is led into the field by Baybars, a Mameluke general. In one of the decisive battles of history, Baybars defeats the Mongols. It is the first setback suffered by the family of Genghis Khan in their remorseless half-century of expansion. This battle defines for the first time a limit to their power. It preserves Palestine and Syria for the Mameluke dynasty in Egypt. Mesopotamia and Persia remain within the Mongol empire. The Il-khans of Persia: 1260-1335 After defeat by the Mamelukes at Ayn Jalut, Hulagu and his descendants make their capital at Tabriz, on the trade route from the east to the Black Sea. They rule as Il-khans ('subordinate khans'), accepting the great khan in Mongolia as their overlord. They make several further attempts to wrest Syria and Palestine from the Mamelukes, but the Euphrates remains the western border of their empire. It is the western extreme of a vast territory. The Il-khans rule as far as the Indus in the east, and from the Amu-Darya in the north down to the Indian Ocean. The last Il-khan in Hulagu's line dies in 1335. His death is followed by a succession of petty rulers in different parts of Persia until the arrival of another conqueror from the steppes of central Asia - a man accustomed to the horizon almost as broad as the one claimed by Genghis Khan. The army of Timur reaches northern Persia in 1383.

The Pax Mongolica and the Silk Road in Mongolian history: 13th - 14th century

By the middle of the 13th century, the family of Genghis Khan controls Asia from the coast of China to the Black Sea. Not since the days of the Han and Roman empires, when the Silk Road is first opened, has there been such an opportunity for trade. In the intervening centuries, the eastern end of the Silk Road has been unsafe because of the Chinese inability to control the fierce nomads of the steppes (nomads such as the Mongols), and the western end has been unsettled by the clash between Islam and Christianity. Now, with the Mongols policing the whole route, there is stability. In an echo of the Pax Romana, the period is often described as the Pax Mongolica. One of the merchants making their way to the east is

Marco Polo in Mongolian History

Marco Polo was an Italian explorer and merchant who is famous for his extensive travels in the 13th century. Here are some key points about Marco Polo:

1. Early Life: Marco Polo was born in Venice, Italy, in 1254. He came from a wealthy merchant family, and his father Niccolò and uncle Maffeo were already experienced traders.

2. Journey to Asia: In 1271, when Marco Polo was 17 years old, he embarked on a journey to the East with his father and uncle. They traveled along the Silk Road and reached the court of Kublai Khan, the Mongol Emperor of the Yuan Dynasty in China.

3. Service to Kublai Khan: Marco Polo served as an emissary and official in the court of Kublai Khan for approximately 17 years. He traveled extensively within the Mongol Empire, visiting various regions including China, Mongolia, India, and Southeast Asia.

4. Travels and Observations: During his travels, Marco Polo documented his observations and experiences in a book called "Il Milione" or "The Travels of Marco Polo." He described the geography, culture, customs, and trade of the regions he visited, which provided Europeans with valuable information about Asia.

5. Return to Venice: After being in the service of Kublai Khan for many years, Marco Polo returned to Venice in 1295. Venice was at war with Genoa at the time and Marco Polo was captured and imprisoned during the conflict.

6. The Book's Impact: Marco Polo's book, "The Travels of Marco Polo," became immensely popular in Europe and sparked curiosity about the distant lands of the East. It played a significant role in promoting European exploration and trade with Asia.

7. Legacy: Marco Polo's travels and writings had a lasting impact on European geographical knowledge, fostering a broader understanding of the world. His accounts also inspired subsequent explorers, such as Christopher Columbus.

It's worth noting that there have been debates and controversies over the accuracy and authenticity of Marco Polo's accounts. However, his writings continue to be studied and recognized as an important historical source for understanding the medieval world and the cultural exchange between East and West.

The decline of Mongol power: 14th century history

In all three regions of their great 13th-century empire, Mongol power ends or declines during the 14th century. In Persia, the last Il-Khan died in 1335. In China, the Yüan dynasty was replaced by the Ming in 1368. In Russia, the Golden Horde begins to lose its dominant position in the last quarter of the century. The grand prince of Moscow defeats the horde in a battle on Kulikovo Plain in 1380; Timur destroyed the city of Sarai Berke in 1395. The Mongols (or Tatars as they are known in Russian history) remain a force to be reckoned with for another two centuries. Surging north from their heartland in the Crimea, they even sack Moscow as late as 1547. But they are now only one competing power among many in Russia. No empire of such a vast scale has passed so quickly or left so little trace. The likely reason is that the Mongols, conquerors of unparalleled skill, are in all other respects more primitive than the people they overwhelm. They are illiterate in the time of Genghis Khan (the Mongolian alphabet was borrowed from a Turkish group later in the 13th century), and their religion is a primitive one, shamanism. As a result, Mongols in different regions tend to lose their identity, adopting the customs which they find in each conquered territory (the Mongols in China present themselves, for example, as a Chinese dynasty), and taking their pick from well-established and more sophisticated religions. In China the Mongols incline to Buddhism, having already an active link with Tibet. In western Asia, where their conquests bring them to the border territories between the caliphate, the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem and the Byzantine empire, they find themselves at the interface between Islam and Christianity. Both sides have hopes of enlisting the great Mongols as allies. Berke, the ruler of the Golden Horde, is the first to adopt Islam - shortly after 1255. He is therefore appalled when his nephew Hulagu, who has a Nestorian Christian wife, destroys Baghdad and kills the caliph in 1258. By the end of the 13th century, most of the Mongols in Persia and central Asia have accepted Islam, the religion which has prevailed in the region for the past 600 years. But it is not only religious influences which dilute the impact of the Mongols. The regions of western Asia conquered by the Mongols are those in which they have been preceded by their distant cousins, the Turks. Settling down to rule, the Mongols need administrators. The Turks are already in place, ready and available. Mongol and Turkish become intertwined, with the older culture tending to prevail. Nowhere is this more evident than in central Asia.

Timur and the Chagatai Turks: 14th century

The regions north and south of the Hindu Kush, approximating to modern Uzbekistan and Afghanistan, from an indeterminate part of the empire of Genghis Khan. Descendants of his son Chagatai inherit them, but the district is fought over by many rival cousins. Here, more than anywhere in the Mongol empire, the Turkish influence is all-pervasive. By the end of the 14th century, even the fiercely competitive petty princes of the region are vague as to whether they are Mongols or Turks - a fact reflected in their different name. They are known as Chagatai Turks. The greatest of them is born near Samarkand in 1336. His name is Timur, but he is more familiar in the west as Tamerlane. Timur is known in his local variety of Turkish as Timur I Leng, meaning Timur the Lame. It is this phrase which has been transliterated in European accounts as Tamerlane (also spelt Tamburlaine). Timur sees himself as restoring the vast Mongol empire. Like Genghis Khan, two centuries earlier, he spends the first half of his life establishing control over local rivals. He is almost fifty when he begins, in 1383, an astonishing two decades of far-flung military campaigns. During them, he reconquers, single-handed, the western half of the Mongol empire.

Timur's conquests:1383 - 1405

Timur begins his campaign with the capture in 1383 of Herat, a city on the border of Afghanistan and Iran which will later, under his descendants, become a high centre of Persian culture. In the next two years, he subdues the whole of eastern Persia. By 1394 he has extended his rule throughout Persia and Mesopotamia and up between the Black Sea and Caspian into Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia. In 1396 he stormed into Russia and occupied Moscow for a year. Timur's rule is brutal. In Persia frequent uprisings are put down with a severity similar to that of Genghis Khan. Populations of entire cities are massacred, and Timur develops a compelling new form of memento mori. The skulls of the dead from the masonry for towers firmly cemented together to stand as cautionary tales. In 1398 Timur outdid one of Genghis Khan's expeditions. He invades India, but unlike his predecessor, he does not stop at the Indus. He marches on to Delhi and devastates the city. He then spends several months collecting treasure, which he carries home on 120 elephants. Home is Samarkand, the city closest to his birthplace. Timur is busy turning it into a great centre of Muslim architecture and art. Together with the Indian elephants come the best craftsmen of Delhi, who will be set to work in Samarkand - where they join, in 1399, a community of skilled captives from previous expeditions. The conqueror himself, now in his mid-sixties, has more practical business to attend to. Before the end of 1399, he marches west, to restore order in his outlying provinces.

The conqueror's declining years in Mongolian Histoy: 1401-1405

In 1401, in Syria, Timur defeated a Mameluke army from Egypt. He then takes and destroys Damascus, despatches a new consignment of talented artisans back to Samarkand. Later in the same year, Baghdad is stormed and sacked, and 20,000 of its population massacred. In 1402 the aged warrior advanced into Anatolia. He defeats an army of Ottoman Turks near Ankara, capturing their sultan, Bayazid I (who dies in Timur's care). He then moves to the west, as far as the Aegean, to take Izmir from the Knights of Rhodes. By 1404 he is back in Samarkand. But even now, two years short of seventy, he is not ready to settle. He has set his sights on an even more ambitious project. Late in 1404, Timur sets out to invade China. He gets no further than Chimkent before he falls ill, in January 1405, and dies. China thus saved from Timur's unwelcome attention is now firmly back under the control of a Chinese dynasty - the Ming. The successors of Kublai Khan have withdrawn to Mongolia.

Discover Mongolian History with Enza Tours LLC

Enza Tours is a renowned tour operator that specializes in organizing trips to Mongolia, offering unique opportunities to explore Mongolian history and culture. Here's how you can discover Mongolian history and experience Mongolia with Enza Tours:

1. Choose a Tour Package: Enza Tours provides various tour packages specifically designed to showcase Mongolia's historical and cultural heritage. Browse through their offerings and select a tour that aligns with your interests and preferences.

2. Explore Ancient Capitals: Mongolia has a rich history of ancient civilizations and empires. Enza Tours can take you to explore historical sites such as Karakorum, the ancient capital of the Mongol Empire, where you can visit the ruins of the ancient city and learn about its significance.

3. Visit Historical Monuments: Discover Mongolia's historical monuments, including Buddhist monasteries, temples, and other sacred sites. Enza Tours can arrange visits to places like Erdene Zuu Monastery, which is one of the oldest and most significant monasteries in Mongolia.

4. Experience Nomadic Culture: Mongolia is renowned for its nomadic heritage. Enza Tours can provide opportunities to experience the traditional nomadic way of life, staying in traditional ger (yurt) camps and interacting with nomadic families. This immersive experience allows you to learn about their customs, traditions, and history.

5. Attend Festivals: Mongolia has vibrant cultural festivals that showcase its history and traditions. Enza Tours can arrange trips during popular festivals such as Naadam, which features traditional sports like wrestling, horse racing, and archery, providing a glimpse into Mongolian culture and heritage.

6. Explore Natural Landscapes: Mongolia's landscapes are breathtaking and have played a significant role in its history. Enza Tours can take you to iconic locations such as the Gobi Desert, Khuvsgul Lake, and the Altai Mountains, where you can witness the beauty of Mongolia's natural wonders while understanding their historical significance.

7. Local Guides and Expertise: Enza Tours provides knowledgeable local guides who can offer insights into Mongolian history, culture, and traditions. They can enhance your understanding of the places you visit and provide a unique perspective on Mongolia's past.

When planning your trip with Enza Tours, make sure to communicate your specific interests and goals for exploring Mongolian history. They can tailor the itinerary to ensure you have a fulfilling and educational experience discovering the rich historical heritage of Mongolia.